The UK has several existing laws and regulations in place to support conservation of buildings and the environment. These include the Town and Country Planning Act 1990, the Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act 1990 and the Environmental Protection Act 1990.
The Town and Country Planning Act regulates the use of land, and requires local authorities to consider the environmental impact and conservation of heritage assets when making planning decisions. The Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act provides legal protection for listed buildings and conservation areas, preventing unauthorised alteration or demolition without permission.
The Environmental Protection Act 1990 establishes the framework for waste management and pollution control, and includes provisions for the management of hazardous waste, conservation of wildlife and protection of the natural environment. The Climate Change Act 2008 also requires reductions in greenhouse gas emissions and the promotion of sustainable development.
Overall, these laws provide a comprehensive regulatory framework to support conservation and environmental protection in the UK.
1560
In 1560, Queen Elizabeth I issued a proclamation against the defacing or breaking of ancient monuments. The Queen was concerned about the destruction of historic landmarks and wanted to ensure their preservation. The proclamation urged people to repair as much of the damage as possible. The move was significant as it recognized the value of preserving the past, those historic structures, and artifacts would be of immense value for future generations, including historians and archeologists. The decree also helped to establish the government’s responsibility for the care and maintenance of historical artifacts, positioning the monarchy as custodians of the nation’s history. Elizabeth’s decree was one of the first steps in the preservation of historical artifacts, an issue that would be taken seriously in subsequent years, with the formation of museums, archives, and other institutions dedicated to the preservation of historical relics.
This was the first recorded action in the UK
1817
In 1817, British architect Thomas Rickman published a seminal treatise that identified and categorized the various styles of English Gothic architecture. The treatise introduced a new way of understanding the evolution of English Gothic architecture and has influenced architectural scholarship to this day. Rickman’s system categorizes buildings according to the features that define them, such as the shapes of arches, windows, and vaults. These features are associated with different historical periods and regional styles, allowing researchers to identify and date structures with greater accuracy. Rickman’s categories included Norman, Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular, terms that have become familiar to architects and historians. Rickman’s work has contributed to a better understanding of the development of English Gothic architecture and its significance within the wider history of European architecture.
This was the first major UK legislation formally tackling civic heritage.
1874
In 1874, there was a campaign to prevent the demolition of St John-at-Hampstead, a Georgian parish church in London. The campaign was led by two famous architects of the time, George Gilbert Scott, Jr., and G.F. Bodley. They argued that the church was an important part of the area’s heritage and that its demolition would be a significant loss to the community. They organized meetings and rallies to raise awareness of the issue and gained support from prominent figures in the art world, including John Ruskin. Despite facing opposition from developers who wanted to build on the site, the campaign was successful, and the church was preserved. The preservation of St John-at-Hampstead was a significant victory for the heritage conservation movement in London, demonstrating the growing recognition of the value of historical architecture and the need to protect it.
This was the first recorded successful campaign to prevent demolition of an Old Build that was not overturned.
1889
The RIBA Committee on the Conservation of Ancient Architectural Monuments and Remains was established in 1889 with the aim to improve the process of restoration of ancient buildings in Britain. The committee was formed out of the increasing concerns regarding the loss of historic buildings due to the indiscriminate restoration works carried out by many individuals and organizations. After much research and debate, the committee published a pamphlet entitled General Advice to the Promoters of the Restoration of Ancient Buildings in 1905. The pamphlet provided detailed guidelines on the appropriate methods to be used in preserving ancient architectural monuments and remains. It also highlighted the need for understanding and respect for the original designs and materials used in the construction of these buildings. This publication served as a cornerstone in the development of modern conservation practices and led to the establishment of professional standards in the field.
This was the first recorded promotion and publication of preserving heritage,
1884
In 1884, the City of Chester in England obtained the power to protect its medieval walls through an Act of Parliament. This move was followed by similar actions in Colchester and Newcastle just a few years later. The medieval walls in these cities were historic landmarks, but they were being damaged by the construction of buildings, roads, and other developments. The Act of Parliament gave the cities the power to control any new developments that could damage the walls and ensured that they were properly maintained. This was a key moment in the preservation of British heritage sites, as it showed that historic landmarks needed to be protected and that the government was willing to take action to ensure their preservation. Today, many of these walls still stand, thanks to the efforts of those who fought for their protection over a century ago.
This was the first mass-scale historic action taken in the UK
1884
The 1884 Survey of London was a significant milestone in the history of urban planning and conservation. The aim of the survey was to create a systematic inventory of buildings and monuments in London, with the goal of preserving the city’s cultural heritage. The survey was conducted by a team of architects, historians, and surveyors who collected information on the age, style, construction, and condition of every building in the city. The inventory included not only famous landmarks, but also hundreds of lesser-known buildings that might have been overlooked without this comprehensive survey. The data collected in the survey was used to create detailed plans for the urban development of London that took into account the preservation of the city’s historic buildings. The survey was a pioneering effort that set the standard for urban conservation and has influenced similar efforts in cities around the world. Today, the 1884 Survey of London remains an invaluable resource for researchers and historians studying London’s built environment.
This was the first national guidance publicly documenting support for property owners to maintain and restore their properties in UK.
This was the first documented inventory of a streetscape undertaken.
1896
In 1896, The Lady, a British women’s magazine, published an article on the topic of inherited historic buildings. The piece advocated for a more academic approach to the conservation and repair of these buildings, in line with the ideas of influential figures like William Morris who emphasized the importance of preserving historical architecture. The article offered practical advice for those tasked with managing or restoring inherited estates and buildings, including recommendations for consulting with architects, historians, and experts in the field. By promoting these ideas, The Lady helped to popularize a more considered and respectful approach to preserving the built heritage of Britain and beyond, which continues to be widely respected and followed today.
This was the first national guidance publicly documenting support for property owners to maintain and restore their properties in the UK.
1882
The 1882 First Ancient Monuments Protection Act was a significant piece of legislation in the United Kingdom that aimed to protect historic sites and monuments from damage or destruction. The Act established the legal framework for the protection of ancient monuments, archaeological sites, and historic buildings, and created the first official list of protected monuments in England and Wales. The Act gave authorities the power to acquire and maintain monuments, regulate public access, and prosecute those who damaged or destroyed them. It also established the principles of preserving and presenting historic sites to the public. This Act was notable for its recognition that the preservation of historic sites was important for national pride and identity. The Act helped to raise awareness of ancient monuments, leading to further acts in 1900 and 1913, which further strengthened legal protections for historic sites. Today, the principles established in the 1882 act continue to significantly shape heritage protection in the UK and serve as a model for similar legislation in other countries.
The First Ancient Monuments Protection Act:
- Established a schedule of 50 state ‘protected’ monuments, all of which were prehistoric. Roman, Medieval and occupied buildings were not yet included on the list.
- These were not directly protected, but if the owner wished to dispose of them, the government could acquire the monuments for caretaking by the Office of Works.
- Archaeologist General Pitt-Rivers appointed as the first Inspector of Ancient Monuments.
This was the first major UK legislation formally tackling civic heritage.
1900
The Ancient Monuments Amendment Act of 1900 was a landmark piece of legislation in the United Kingdom. It aimed to protect ancient sites of archaeological, historical and cultural importance across the country. The Act bestowed the power to manage and regulate these sites with the government’s Ministry of Works. It allowed for the temporary restriction of public access to these sites when necessary and prohibited the unauthorized removal of antiquities.
The law also introduced a system of legal protection for ancient monuments by creating a schedule listing over 1,000 nationally important sites. This list includes iconic landmarks such as Stonehenge, Hadrian’s Wall, and the Roman Baths in Bath. The act allowed the government to acquire protected monuments for conservation purposes.
Overall, the Ancient Monuments Amendment Act of 1900 marked a significant step towards safeguarding the United Kingdom’s heritage and preserving its history for future generations.
Ancient Monuments Amendment Act:
- Allowed inclusion of Romano-British and medieval monuments on the schedule, but maintained the exclusion of ecclesiastical buildings and occupied dwellings.
- Northamptonshire acquired the Eleanor Cross at Geddington and Scarborough Corporation acquired a lease of the castle.
This was the first amendment recorded integrated into UK legislation.
1904
Lord Curzon, who served as Viceroy of India from 1899 to 1905, played a critical role in the preservation of India’s ancient monuments. He recognized the need to protect these sites, which were in a state of neglect due to lack of maintenance and vandalism.
To address this issue, he helped to draft and pass the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act of 1904, which provided for the protection, maintenance, and conservation of ancient monuments and archaeological sites in India. The act established a system for the management of these sites and emphasized the importance of public education, scientific research, and public access to these monuments.
Under Curzon’s leadership, the Archaeological Survey of India was also reorganized, and a number of important archaeological expeditions were undertaken. These efforts helped to raise awareness of India’s rich cultural heritage and laid the foundation for future conservation and restoration work.
This is the first reference to influence expanding internationally outside the UK
1908
In 1908 Royal Commissions were established in Scotland, England and Wales with the aim of identifying and preserving historic structures and sites that were built before 1700. The Commissions were tasked with preparing inventories of these structures and sites, which included everything from castles and country houses to churches, gardens and industrial heritage. The inventories were based on rigorous research and assessment, with the goal of ensuring that these historic buildings and landscapes were properly protected for future generations. The Royal Commissions also played a key role in raising public awareness of the importance of heritage conservation. Thanks to their work, many pre-1700 structures and sites have been saved from neglect or demolition, and continue to be treasured as important elements of our cultural heritage.
This was the first official mass-scale inventory undertaken in the UK.
1925
The Council for the Protection of Rural England (CPRE) was founded in 1925 to counter the negative impacts of the motorcar on the English countryside. It brought together prominent planners and architects like Guy Dawber, Patrick Abercrombie, and Clough Williams-Ellis, who were concerned about the damage to the landscape caused by urban sprawl and increased traffic. The CPRE played a significant role in shaping policy and influencing public opinion on issues related to land use, conservation, and rural development. In the years that followed, it campaigned for the preservation of the ‘green belt’, encouraged sustainable land use and farm practice, advocated for the expansion of national parks, and highlighted the significance of preserving traditional rural landscapes. The CPRE’s legacy lives on as a champion of rural protection and sustainable development.
This was the first recorded direction protective action for the countryside undertaken affecting placemaking positively.
1928
In 1928 Clough Williams-Ellis published ‘ England and the Octopus’, a groundbreaking work in the field of architectural preservation and conservation. It was the first popular book solely devoted to the subject, and it addressed in particular the impact of modern industrialization on traditional architecture and rural landscapes. The book discussed the importance of preserving historic buildings and cultural heritage as a means of maintaining a sense of continuity with the past. Williams-Ellis also advocated for the importance of good town planning and the positive impact it could have on peoples’ lives. His work served to raise awareness about the importance of preserving the built environment and has inspired generations of architects, historians and preservationists to continue the important work of protecting our architectural heritage.
1931
The Ancient Monuments Act of 1931 is a piece of legislation passed in the United Kingdom that aimed to protect and preserve significant historical sites and landmarks. The law provides legal protection to monuments, ruins, and other ancient structures that have significant cultural or historical value. It also established the Ancient Monuments Board to identify and declare such sites as protected. The legislation aims to ensure that the public has access to these historic sites and to promote their education and appreciation. The 1931 Ancient Monuments Act has been updated several times, most notably in 1979. The law remains an important element in the preservation of ancient sites throughout the UK and has inspired similar efforts in other countries. Today, the protected sites range from castles and cathedrals to prehistoric standing stones and burial grounds and are key to understanding the nation’s history, culture and identity.
The Ancient Monuments Act expanded UK legislation across the natural environment:
- Empowered local authorities to set up preservation schemes to protect monuments and their surroundings, thereby introducing the concept of the conservation area into protective legislation.
1932
The 1932 Town and Country Planning Act was a seminal piece of legislation. It marked a major turning point in the organization and planning of towns and cities in Britain. The act established a framework for local authorities to prepare urban and rural development plans, in order to guide the future growth of their regions. It enabled local authorities to protect important natural and cultural resources, and coordinate development across larger areas. The legislation also empowered local authorities to acquire land for planning purposes, using the power of compulsory purchase. Among other things, the act set up procedures which enabled local authorities to regulate the use of land, control buildings, and make provisions for public amenities such as housing, parks, and playing fields. Overall, the 1932 Town and Country Planning Act played a critical role in shaping the development of Britain’s towns and cities in the 20th century and beyond.
Town and Country Planning Act:
- Introduced Building Preservation Orders to be served by local authorities on threatened historic buildings, with compensation to be paid if Minister of Works failed to uphold the order.
- Included occupied dwelling houses for the first time.
1932
John Betjeman, a British poet and writer, founded the Shell Guides in the 1930s, primarily to draw attention to Georgian and early-Victorian buildings in the UK. These guides were a series of travel books that covered various locations around the country, focusing on architecture, history, and local culture. Betjeman believed that many of these buildings were underappreciated and at risk of being lost to modern development.
The Shell Guides were unique in their approach, combining practical travel advice with a focus on cultural preservation and appreciation. They were also beautifully illustrated, showcasing the distinct styles and features of each location’s architecture.
Betjeman’s work with the Shell Guides helped to spark a renewed interest in British architecture, leading to increased preservation efforts and a greater appreciation for the country’s cultural heritage. Today, these guides remain an important resource for anyone interested in exploring the UK’s rich history and architectural legacy.
1935
The Ferguson Gang was an anonymous group of women known as the Blue Stockings who, inspired by Clough Williams Ellis’s England & The Octopus’, launched a five-year campaign to raise money for the National Trust and save historic buildings. They were active in the 1930s and took their name from one of their members, a man named Ferguson. The group would dress in eccentric costumes and use pseudonyms to add an air of mystery to their activities. They would often visit National Trust properties, leaving behind donations, and sometimes performing practical tasks such as painting or cleaning. They also organized events to raise funds, including a concert at the Savoy Theatre and a treasure hunt in Hyde Park. Their efforts helped to save many historic buildings which may have otherwise been lost. Despite their anonymity, the Ferguson Gang became famous for their good works and the eccentricity of their approach, which captured the public’s imagination.
1937
Clough Williams-Ellis played a crucial role in the editing of “Britain and the Beast,” a groundbreaking book that delved into environmental concerns beyond animal welfare. Originally written by newspaper editor George Wigg, the book was transformed with Williams-Ellis’s help into a comprehensive examination of issues such as pollution, deforestation, and land conservation. Williams-Ellis, who was a well-known architect and landscape designer, brought his expertise in design and ecology to the project, ensuring that the book was not only informative but also visually engaging. His work on “Britain and the Beast” helped to usher in a new era of environmentalism that went beyond animal rights activism, inspiring people to take a broader look at the impact of human activity on the natural world. The book remains a valuable resource for anyone interested in the history of environmental thought in Britain.
1937
In 1937, the National Trust, a UK charity dedicated to preserving and protecting the country’s heritage sites, launched the ‘National Trust Country House Scheme’. This was in response to the growing concern that many grand country homes were falling into disrepair, both due to the economic struggles of the time and changes in societal norms that made this lifestyle less desirable. Under this scheme, the National Trust would take on the responsibility of caring for these properties, whilst the owners would retain their use and ownership.
That same year, Country Life magazine published a list of 639 country houses that were considered worthy of preservation. This list helped to raise awareness of the issue and highlighted the importance of preserving these historic homes.
The National Trust Country House Scheme was hugely successful and remains so today, with the charity now caring for over 300 properties across the UK.
1938
The City of Bath Act was brought in by the UK government in 1938 to help protect the historic city of Bath from being altered. The Act was passed in response to threats posed by modern town planning and the need for new buildings to accommodate the growing population. The Act was put in place to ensure the city’s unique character was preserved and protected. It mandates that new buildings and renovations had to fit in with the existing Georgian architecture, cobblestone streets, and gas lamps. The Act helped to set the tone for future city development regulations and was seen as a turning point in preserving the nation’s heritage. Today, the City of Bath remains a popular attraction for tourists and locals alike, with the historic architecture, Roman Baths, and surrounding countryside continuing to be protected by laws such as this one.
1938
In 1938, Diocesan Advisory Committees were established to provide expert advice to the Chancellor on aesthetic and historical aspects of Faculty petitions. These committees eventually became statutory, meaning they were legally required by law. This development was significant because it ensured that the process for modifications or renovations to historic buildings would be guided by qualified experts who could advise on the historical significance and preservation of the structures. These committees continue to play an important role in the UK today, providing advice on any building or object that has a cultural, historical, or aesthetic significance. The establishment of Diocesan Advisory Committees has helped to ensure that the UK’s architectural heritage is preserved for future generations, while also allowing for necessary updates and renovations to better serve current and future needs.
1940
The National Buildings (later Monuments) Record is a privately funded organization that was founded in 1940 by Walter Godfrey, John Summerson and Cecil Farthing. Its primary aim was to undertake the first graphic record of England’s buildings. The organization was set up during a time of war when many buildings in England were suffering damage. The founders realized that a comprehensive record of the country’s buildings was necessary to preserve the nation’s heritage for future generations.
The National Buildings Record’s initial focus was on collating images and descriptions of buildings across the country, but it later expanded its scope to include architectural drawings, photographs, and building surveys. In 1953, it became part of the newly formed Ministry of Works and was renamed the Monuments Record. Today, the National Monuments Record continues to play a vital role in documenting and preserving the built heritage of England and is a valuable resource for historians, architects, and researchers.
1944
The 1944 Town and Planning Act was a significant piece of legislation that had a major impact on the planning and development of cities and towns in the UK. The act replaced previous planning legislation and introduced a number of new measures, including the creation of development plans and the establishment of local planning authorities.
One of the key changes from the previous legislation was the focus on strategic planning and the need to consider the long-term development of an area. The act also introduced a system of compulsory purchase, enabling local authorities to acquire land for development if necessary.
The Act represented a significant shift towards a more comprehensive and coordinated approach to urban planning and development and aimed to address the issues of overcrowding, poor housing conditions, and inadequate infrastructure that had arisen during the rapid industrialization of the previous century. Today, the legacy of the 1944 Town and Planning Act continues to shape the development and growth of urban areas in the UK.
The Town and Country Planning Act:
- Moved responsibility for historic buildings from Ministry of Works to the new Ministry of Town and Country Planning.
- Provided for comprehensive lists of historic buildings thought worthy of preservation, for local authorities to consent note when preparing plans.
- Required owners of listed buildings to give two months’ notice of proposed works.
1945
In 1945, the Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) initiated a scheme to prepare salvage lists of buildings that were deemed valuable to the nation’s architectural heritage. Architects were tasked with identifying and categorizing buildings into three groups: Grade I was for buildings of exceptional interest, Grade II for those of special interest, and Grade III for those of traditional interest.
The Salvage lists were a response to the devastation caused by World War II and the need to preserve historic buildings that could be repaired and restored. The lists included a wide range of structures, from medieval churches to Georgian townhouses, and were used as a guide by local authorities, architects, and designers in post-war reconstruction efforts.
The preparation of the Salvage lists was a significant undertaking, and the roles of architects in their creation helped shape the future of conservation and heritage preservation in the UK. Today, many of the buildings listed in 1945 are considered architectural treasures and protected by law.
1946
Section 42 of the Town and Country Planning Act 1944 was published in 1946 and provided instructions for investigations into the listing of buildings of special architectural interest. This legislation was a response to concerns that important and historic buildings were being demolished or altered without proper consideration.
Architectural historian John Summerson was involved in the discussions around the definition of ‘special architectural interest’. He argued that this should be based on a building’s historical, aesthetic and communal value. Summerson also stressed the importance of considering a building’s context, including its relationship to the surrounding environment and its function in terms of the social and cultural life of the community.
Section 42 has been instrumental in protecting notable buildings and important architectural features across the UK. Today, it remains a vital tool for ensuring the preservation of historic landmarks for future generations.
1947
The 1947 Town and Planning Act was a significant piece of legislation in creating the modern British planning system. The Act introduced several important changes, including making it a legal requirement for local authorities to create a comprehensive development plan for their area, allowing for the creation of new towns and providing greater powers for authorities to purchase land. Additionally, it established a national planning system with the power to reject local plans, and created development corporations with the authority to buy and sell property. The Act’s aim was to provide an improved quality of life for all citizens through well-designed, accessible and affordable housing schemes, as well as efficient transport and public amenities. Though it has often been revised, the 1947 Act remains a cornerstone of the British planning system to this day.
The Town and Country Planning Act:
- Obliged Minister to compile lists for the first time. These were only advisory and published for the guidance of local authorities.
- Required local authority to issue a Building Preservation Order in order to protect a building.
- Introduced more specific criteria and the system of grading.
1950
In 1950, The Gowers Report was published in the UK. It suggested that owners of exceptional country houses should be granted tax and death duty relief to help them maintain these historic buildings. The report recognized that the upkeep of these properties was a financial burden on their owners and proposed that the state should step in to provide some relief. However, these recommendations were never implemented and many of these grand homes fell into disrepair or were demolished. The decision not to provide financial support for the upkeep of these properties is seen as a major factor in the loss of many historic buildings in the UK. The Gowers Report remains an important document in the history of attempts to preserve Britain’s architectural heritage and serves as a reminder of the need for ongoing efforts to protect these valuable assets.
The report recommended (but was not followed through) that owners of particularly outstanding country houses should be eligible for tax and death duty relief to offset the considerable costs of maintaining these buildings.
1950
The International Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works (IIC) was founded in 1950 with a mission to promote the understanding, conservation and preservation of cultural heritage. The founding members, a group of conservators and restorers from Europe and America, recognized the importance of creating a professional organization to provide a platform for research, collaboration and knowledge sharing in the field of conservation. Since its founding, IIC has grown into a global organization with members from over 50 countries. IIC’s activities include conferences, workshops, publications and research, all designed to advance knowledge and understanding in the conservation of cultural heritage. One of the notable achievements of IIC has been the development of a Code of Ethics and Guidelines for Practice, which serves as a standard for professional conduct in the field of conservation. Today, IIC remains committed to promoting the highest standards of conservation and to advocating for the protection of cultural heritage for future generations.
1951
Nikolaus Pevsner’s Buildings of England Series began in 1951 with the publication of its first volume covering Cornwall. Pevsner aimed to provide a comprehensive guide to every significant building in England, from small chapels to grand castles, and to place them in their historical and geographical context. The Cornwall volume was well received due to its detailed descriptions, thorough research and insightful commentary. Pevsner’s writing style was lauded for its clarity and precision, making it accessible to both scholars and casual readers. The Cornwall volume was an important milestone in the field of architectural history, providing a model for succeeding volumes in the series. The Buildings of England Series has since expanded to cover all counties in England and is considered an indispensable resource for anyone interested in English architecture and landscape.
1953
The 1953 Historic Buildings and Ancient Monuments Act was a significant piece of legislation in the United Kingdom that aimed to protect and preserve important historic sites and structures. It established a system of listing buildings and monuments that were of special architectural or historical interest, thereby making it illegal to demolish or alter them without permission from the relevant authorities.
This act marked a shift towards a more proactive approach to heritage conservation in the UK, and facilitated the establishment of bodies such as English Heritage and Historic Scotland. It also helped to raise awareness about the importance of preserving the country’s cultural heritage, and provided a framework for future legislation and policies in this area. Today, the act still plays an important role in heritage conservation, and many listed buildings and monuments remain cherished features of the UK’s landscape.
The Historic Buildings and Ancient Monuments Act:
- Established grant schemes for the repair of historic buildings and ancient monuments, to be administered by the Historic Buildings Council and the Ancient Monuments Board.
1954
The publication of Howard Colvin’s Biographical Dictionary of British Architects 1600-1840 was a significant event in the field of architectural history. First published in 1954 and updated in 1978, the dictionary was the result of years of research and provided a comprehensive guide to the lives and work of British architects from the 17th to the early 19th centuries.
The dictionary contained entries on over 2,000 architects, including their biographical details and a list of their known works. It was an invaluable resource for scholars, students, and professionals in the field of architecture, providing a wealth of information on the people who shaped the built environment of Britain during this period.
Colvin’s approach to architectural history was characterized by meticulous research and a deep appreciation for the social and cultural context in which buildings were constructed. His biographical dictionary remains an essential reference work for anyone interested in the history of British architecture.
1955
W.G. Hoskins’ The Making of the English Landscape is a seminal work in the field of landscape history and geography. Published in 1955, the book revolutionized the study of the English countryside by emphasizing the importance of local and regional variation in landscape formation. Hoskins argued that the landscape was both a product of natural processes and human interventions, challenging the long-held belief that English landscapes were timeless and unchanging. This interdisciplinary approach, which integrated historical and geographical methods, paved the way for further research into the cultural and environmental dimensions of landscape. The book was widely acclaimed for its clear and accessible writing style, making it accessible to a broad readership beyond academia. To this day, The Making of the English Landscape remains a classic work and a benchmark in the field of landscape studies.
1957
The Civic Trust was founded in 1957 by Duncan Sandys, the British politician and son-in-law of Winston Churchill. The aim of the trust was to raise public awareness about the impacts of town planning and redevelopment on the historic environment. Sandys recognized the growing need to protect historic buildings, neighborhoods, and landscapes from being destroyed in the name of modernization. The trust worked to promote good design, sustainability, and community engagement in urban planning. They believed that historic buildings were an important part of our cultural heritage and could enhance our quality of life. Through their campaigns, the Civic Trust successfully lobbied for changes in government policy that led to the listing of historic buildings, the creation of conservation areas, and the establishment of heritage protection zones.
Their first street improvement scheme in Norwich, was begun the following year.
Although the trust was disbanded in 2009 due to funding issues, its legacy lives on as an important voice in the preservation of our built heritage.
1962
The 1962 Local Authorities (Historic Buildings Act) was a significant piece of legislation in the protection and preservation of historic buildings in England and Wales. The act provided local authorities with the power to preserve and protect historic buildings of special architectural or historic interest, as well as areas of historical or architectural value. The aim of the act was to prevent the loss of significant historical buildings by requiring their owners to give notice of any proposed demolition or alteration of buildings of architectural or historical value.
The act enabled local authorities to designate conservation areas, which provided protection for groups of buildings with architectural or historic value. The act also established the concept of listed buildings, with a requirement for listed buildings to be preserved as they were at the time of listing.
The 1962 Local Authorities (Historic Buildings Act) has had a significant impact on the protection and preservation of historic buildings in England and Wales, with many buildings and their associated areas being preserved for future generations.
The Local Authorities (Historic Buildings Act):
- Enabled local authorities to offer grants towards the repairs of listed or unlisted buildings.
- Included for the first time churches in ecclesiastical use.
1967
The Civic Amenities Act of 1967 was a significant milestone towards the improvement of the environment in the UK. This Act was passed by the British Parliament and aimed to help control environmental pollution and safeguard the aesthetic quality of the urban and rural environments. The Act gave local authorities the power to regulate the preservation, enhancement, and promotion of the environmental amenities and natural beauty of their regions. Under this Act, local authorities could establish amenities, such as parks, gardens, and playgrounds, and could carry out their maintenance and upkeep. They were also given the authority to deal with unsightly buildings and land in their regions. Overall, the Civic Amenities Act marked a turning point for environmental conservation in the UK, and its impact is still visible today.
The Civic Amenities Act:
- Steered through Parliament by Duncan Sandys, MP, who had founded the Civic Trust
- Introduced Conservation Areas, areas of architectural or historic interest, which local authorities were instructed to compile and amend.
- Underlined the importance of lesser buildings when they were part of a group.
1968
The 1968 Town and Country Planning Act brought significant changes to the planning system in the UK. It introduced a framework for modern planning that aimed to balance economic development with environmental protection. The Act established planning authorities at both national and local level, each with specific powers and responsibilities related to development control, land use zoning, and plan-making. It also introduced a system of development plans that set out policies for the use of land and buildings, and established a procedure for consulting the public and other stakeholders in the planning process. The Act required planning authorities to take into account the historical, architectural, and cultural value of buildings and areas, leading to the creation of conservation areas and the protection of listed buildings. Overall, the 1968 Town and Country Planning Act brought about a comprehensive and increasingly influential UK planning system that continues to shape our built environment today.
The Town and Country Planning Act:
- Gave all buildings on the list statutory protection for the first time.
- Required owner to obtain Listed Building Consent from the local planning authority for works which would alter the building’s character, with certain cases (such as total demolition and buildings owned by local authorities) to be referred to the Secretary of State.
- Increased the penalty for unauthorised works.
- Introduced notification of the five amenity societies (SPAB, Georgian Group, Ancient Monuments Society, Victorian Society and Council for British Archaeology, as well as the RCHME).
- Introduced repairs notices for neglected buildings.
1968
In 1968, Lord Kennet commissioned four large conservation reports for the cities of York, Chester, Lincoln, and Bath, which were published under the title “A Study in Conservation.” The reports aimed to address the issues of preserving historic buildings and the heritage of these cities while also accommodating modern needs. Each report evaluated the city’s historical significance, architectural style, and assessed the potential impact of urbanization. These reports were seen as a breakthrough in urban planning and conservation because they highlighted the importance of preserving the cultural heritage of the cities while accommodating the needs of their residents. The reports were influential in shaping the policies of urban planning and conservation in the UK and were used as a model for other reports and conservation initiatives worldwide. They continue to be regarded as essential resources for understanding the urban heritage of these four cities.
1968
The Redundant Churches Fund (later renamed the Churches Conservation Trust) was founded in 1969 in response to an urgent need to save and protect historic churches in England that were no longer used for worship. Many of these churches, dating back centuries, were at risk of neglect, decay, and ultimate destruction. The charity was established with the aim of purchasing the redundant churches, restoring and repairing them, and giving them a new lease of life as centers of culture, heritage, and community activities. Over the years, the Trust has grown to become the largest national heritage charity in the UK, protecting over 350 historic churches and chapels, and welcoming millions of visitors every year. It relies on generous donations and volunteers to achieve its mission of preserving, promoting, and celebrating the rich architectural, artistic, and spiritual heritage of these invaluable buildings.
1971
The Town and Country Planning Act of 1971 in the UK updated the original Act of 1947 to incorporate changes in society and technology. The act established the principles of determining land use, development plans, and best use of the public resources for physical development in the country. One notable change was the establishment of a planning commission to advise the Secretary of State on planning proposals. The Act also introduced the concept of open space, wildlife and heritage preservation as planning considerations, along with the need to provide infrastructure and affordable housing. The Act aimed to promote sustainable development and provide a balance between development and conservation. Moreover, the revised Act introduced the principle of planning permissions and control that requires anyone who wants to develop on their land to apply for permission from their local authority. The Act is considered a vital tool for balancing social, economic and environmental aspirations in planning for the future of the UK.
The Town and Country Planning Act:
- Empowered local authorities to designate conservation areas.
- Permit Local Authorities to serve repairs notices on owners of listed buildings and to follow up with compulsory purchase where necessary
1972
The Field Monuments Act was passed by the British Parliament in 1972 to protect and preserve scheduled monuments. Scheduled monuments are archaeological sites, historic buildings, and other structures that are considered to be of national importance. The act introduced a system of payments to landowners with scheduled monuments on their land. This was to encourage landowners to take responsibility for the preservation of these monuments. The payments were intended to cover the costs of maintaining the site and protecting it from damage or destruction. The act also made it illegal for anyone to carry out any work on a scheduled monument without permission from the appropriate authorities. This was a significant step in the protection of British heritage, ensuring that valuable historical monuments are preserved for future generations to enjoy and learn from.
1973
Adam Fergusson’s The Sack of Bath is a powerful and evocative indictment of the destruction of the city’s Georgian architecture in the 20th century. Published in 1973, the book is a record of the demolition of hundreds of ancient buildings that comprised the city’s historic center, leading to the loss of Bath’s unique character. Fergusson meticulously documents the bureaucratic and profit-driven motives behind the destruction, pointing out the apathy of the authorities towards preserving what was considered an irreplaceable treasure from the past. The book is filled with vivid images and descriptions of the beauty of the Georgian buildings, leading the reader to mourn their loss. While it is a sad reminder of what was lost, The Sack of Bath also serves as a warning against careless development in the future, urging us to learn from past mistakes.
1974
The ‘Destruction of the Country House’ was an exhibition held at the Victoria and Albert Museum in 1974, which focused on the decline of the British country house and its destruction during the 20th century. This was in response to the publication of John Cornforth’s report ‘Country Houses in Britain’, which highlighted the difficulties of the legal and financial situation for country house ownership and led to a wave of demolition and neglect of these grand estates. The exhibition featured photographs, paintings, and architectural fragments from country houses that had been destroyed, and sought to raise awareness of the important cultural heritage that was being lost. The exhibition sparked a public debate about the fate of country houses and their preservation, leading to the development of new legislation and organizations dedicated to their protection and restoration.
1974
The Town and Country Amenities Act of 1974 was a significant piece of legislation in the UK that strengthened the protection of Conservation Areas. Before the act was implemented, a lack of specific regulations and laws about these areas had led to their degradation and disappearance over time. The Act made it necessary for local authorities to obtain specific consent for any demolition or radical alteration of buildings in a Conservation Area. This requirement protected historical, cultural, and architectural places of significance, preventing indiscriminate destruction and allowing for better preservation and enhancement of these unique areas. The act also gave power to the Secretary of State to oversee the designation of new Conservation Areas by local authorities. The 1974 Town and Country Amenities Act was a key move to safeguard Britain’s architectural, cultural, and social heritage and has been critical in preserving many towns and cities’ historical character.
1983
The National Heritage Act of 1983 was a UK law that aimed to better protect the country’s historic assets. It established new bodies, such as English Heritage, that were responsible for preserving and promoting places of historical interest. The act also introduced listings for buildings and structures deemed to have special architectural or historic interest. This meant that owners could no longer make alterations without getting permission first. The act established the Treasure Act, which required those who found treasure to report it to the authorities. In summary, this act marked a significant step forward in the protection of the UK’s cultural heritage and helped to ensure that future generations could appreciate and learn from the country’s rich history.
The National Heritage Act:
- Established English Heritage as the government’s lead advisor on the built historic environment in England
- Obliged Secretary of State for the Environment to consult English Heritage on listing matters, and to refer certain applications for listed building consent for advice.
1987
The UK’s Department of the Environment Circular 8/87, issued in February 1987, was a significant moment in the country’s architectural heritage. The circular removed the 1939 ceiling on listing buildings and introduced the 10 and 30 year rules. Previously, buildings had to be over 100 years old to be considered for listing, but the new rules allowed for any building over 30 years old to be evaluated for listing. The 10-year rule stated that buildings under 30 years old were unlikely to be of sufficient quality or significance to be listed.
This circular led to a surge in the number of new listings and helped preserve many important buildings that may have been demolished or altered beyond recognition without this protection. The circular has also protected many more modern structures that may have been overlooked due to their age alone. The introduction of these rules has given the UK a more comprehensive and diverse architectural heritage, helping to preserve the country’s history and character for future generations.
1990
The Town and Country Planning Act 1990 was revised in 2004 through the Planning and Compulsory Purchase Act. One of the major changes was the introduction of regional planning, giving regional assemblies the power to draft regional planning policies. The act also streamlined the planning process, reducing the number of planning authorities from around 5,000 to around 380 in England. The new system also introduced a national planning framework, giving guidance on key issues such as housing and infrastructure. The revised act also introduced sustainable development principles, which had to be considered during the planning process. Finally, it improved public participation in the planning process, giving people greater opportunities to have their say and take part in planning decisions. Overall, the revisions aimed to make the planning system simpler, quicker, more transparent, and more responsive to the needs of the community while promoting sustainable development.
The Town and Country Planning Act 1990:
- Defined the planning powers of local authorities and provided guidance to be given by the Secretary of State.
1990
The 1990 PPG 16 is a policy document that outlines the importance of considering archaeology in the planning process. It sets out guidelines for local authorities to follow in order to ensure that archaeological remains are preserved and protected during development projects. The PPG 16 states that developers should carry out a thorough assessment of potential archaeological sites before any work begins, and that any discoveries should be reported and recorded. It also suggests that developers should try to integrate archaeological features into the design of new buildings where possible, or provide public access to sites of historic interest. The PPG 16 has been widely adopted in the UK and has led to greater awareness and appreciation of our archaeological heritage. It has also helped to ensure that important sites are preserved for future generations.
PPG 16: Archaeology and Planning:
- Defined the government’s policy on archaeological remains on land, and how they should be preserved or recorded both in an urban setting and in the countryside, insisting on proper consideration given to archaeological remains in the planning process.
1990
The Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act of 1990 is a piece of legislation enacted in the United Kingdom that provides protection for historic buildings and conservation areas. The act mandates that all building work and alterations to buildings located within a designated conservation area or listed building must be granted consent by the local planning authority. This is to ensure that any proposed works will preserve the character and historic importance of the area or building. The act also provides for the designation of new conservation areas and the updating of existing ones. Furthermore, the act makes it a criminal offence to carry out unauthorised works to a listed building, with severe penalties, including imprisonment, for those found guilty. The Planning (Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas) Act of 1990 is an important piece of legislation that helps to protect the UK’s heritage and ensures that historic buildings and conservation areas are preserved for future generations.
The Planning (Listed Building and Conservation Areas) Act 1990:
- Consolidated previous legislation for ‘buildings and areas of special architectural interest’ so that general planning legislation is separated from conservation legislation.
1993
The National Lottery Act of 1993 brought the National Lottery into existence, enabling significant grants for heritage projects. The act also created the Heritage Lottery Fund (HLF), which operates as a separate entity from the National Lottery. The HLF uses lottery money to support projects that benefit the UK’s heritage. These projects can include repairing historic buildings, preserving artefacts and documents, and providing educational opportunities. Since its inception, the HLF has awarded over £7.8 billion to support heritage projects throughout the UK. The grants have enabled major restoration works at some of the UK’s most significant historic sites, including the Tower of London, Bath’s Royal Crescent, and Edinburgh Castle. In addition, funding has also been used to support smaller-scale projects that are just as vital to preserving the UK’s heritage. Thanks to the National Lottery Act and the work of the HLF, heritage projects throughout the UK can continue to receive the funding they need to thrive.
1994
PPG 15, also known as Planning Policy Guidance 15, was introduced in 1994 by the UK government to guide local authorities in the planning processes involving the historic environment. The policy recognized the value of historic buildings, areas, and landscapes, and the need to conserve and enhance them for future generations. It emphasized the requirements for the proper assessment of the significance of heritage assets and the need to balance the conservation objectives with development needs.
PPG 15 aimed to provide a framework for decision-making, where planning authorities took into account the cultural heritage significance of development proposals. It placed a duty on local authorities to identify and assess their heritage assets and to ensure that the management of change did not harm their significance.
PPG 15 played a significant role in shaping the planning system and the protection of the historic environment. Its principles are still relevant today, and it remains an important tool in the conservation and management of heritage assets.
PPG 15: Planning and the Historic Environment:
- Defined the Government’s policies for the identification and protection of historic buildings and conservation areas, and the role played by the planning system in their protection.
- Established policy of assessment for the wider landscape.
1994
The 1994 Ecclesiastical Exemption Act was a piece of legislation passed by the UK Parliament that granted exemptions to certain organisations and institutions from various laws and regulations. Specifically, it ensured that the Church of England and other religious organisations were not subject to laws on health and safety, employment, and data protection, among others.
The act was controversial as it meant that these organisations did not have to adhere to the same standards and requirements as other institutions. Some argued that this was unfair and created a double standard, while others contended that it was necessary to protect religious freedom and autonomy.
Despite the controversy, the Ecclesiastical Exemption Act remains in force today, and continues to provide exemptions and privileges to religious organisations across the UK.
The Ecclesiastical Exemption Act:
- Allowed ecclesiastical buildings that are for the time being in ecclesiastical exemption from listed building and conservation controls.
- The safeguard was an undertaking from the Church of England that its historic buildings would be subject to a separate Church system of control which takes account of the historical and architectural importance of churches.
1994
The Heritage Lottery Fund was established in 1994 with the purpose of distributing funds from the National Lottery to support heritage projects in the UK. Over the years, it has awarded billions of pounds to support conservation, education, and community engagement efforts related to the UK’s cultural heritage. In 2019, the Heritage Lottery Fund was rebranded as the National Lottery Heritage Fund to reflect its strong connection to the National Lottery and its continued commitment to heritage conservation and education. The Fund’s projects have had a significant impact on the UK’s heritage landscape, from supporting the restoration of historic buildings to preserving precious collections and archives, and promoting community involvement in heritage activities. The National Lottery Heritage Fund remains one of the UK’s most important resources for preserving and enhancing the country’s cultural heritage and is essential in ensuring that future generations can continue to enjoy and learn from it.
2000
English Heritage published ‘Power of Place: The Future of the Historic Environment’ in 2000. The report is a comprehensive strategy aimed at preserving the country’s historical sites and monuments in the face of various environmental, economic, and social challenges. The report suggests that the key to preserving the historic environment is through collaboration between different stakeholders, including government bodies, private organizations, and local communities. The report also advocates for innovative funding models that can help to sustain the historic environment while creating economic opportunities.
The report highlights the importance of the historic environment in terms of cultural identity, tourism, and education. It advocates for an inclusive approach that takes into account the diverse histories and experiences of different communities. The report also proposes various measures, such as digital technologies and green infrastructure, that can help to mitigate the impact of climate change on historical sites and monuments.
Overall, the ‘Power of Place’ report represents a significant step towards ensuring the long-term viability of the historic environment in England. It provides a framework for preserving the country’s rich heritage while also embracing the opportunities of the 21st century.
2001
The publication of ‘The Historic Environment: A Force for Our Future’ was a significant step forward in recognizing the importance of preserving and promoting our cultural heritage. This report highlights how historic sites and structures can serve as a driving force for economic, social, and environmental development. It also emphasizes the need for collaborations between different stakeholders, including policymakers, heritage professionals, and local communities to fully realize the potential of the historic environment.
The publication offers practical examples and case studies to demonstrate how a preservation-minded approach can produce sustainable economic growth, community cohesion, and cultural identity. It is a valuable resource for those working in the heritage sector and beyond, as it provides a framework for understanding the broader benefits of preserving our past. Overall, this report serves as a vital tool for advocating for the significance of historic preservation in shaping our future.
2002
The publication of the first ‘State of the Historic Environment Report’ in 2002 marked the start of an annual report series called Heritage Counts. This report was produced by English Heritage for the Department of Culture, Media and Sport in the UK. The report provided a comprehensive overview of the state of the historic environment, indicating how much of England’s built heritage was under threat and identifying priority areas for conservation.
The report addressed issues such as the importance of preserving buildings and sites of historic significance, and the benefits of doing so. It also highlighted the impact of development on heritage sites, providing insight into how planning policy could be used to protect them. The report set a benchmark for future annual reports, providing valuable insights on the state of England’s historic environment and the progress made in preserving it.
2002
The National Heritage Act of 2002 was a key piece of legislation that aimed to promote the public’s enjoyment and protection of important heritage sites in the UK, including those that are located on or beneath the seabed. The act added a significant amount of seabed area to English Heritage’s zone of activity, expanding its scope to over 73,000 square kilometres.
Through this expansion, English Heritage was granted increased responsibility for identifying, protecting, and managing important maritime heritage sites to ensure their preservation for future generations. This included a focus on the protection of shipwrecks, underwater archaeological sites, and other historic features of the seabed.
The act also aimed to promote greater public awareness and engagement with these important heritage sites, encouraging individuals to visit and learn more about the history and significance of the UK’s maritime heritage. By promoting the exploration and enjoyment of these important sites, the National Heritage Act has helped to ensure their preservation and protection for years to come.
2003
In 2003, the UK government’s Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) published a consultation document titled “Protecting our historic environment: Making the system work better”. This document aimed to gather opinions and proposals from the public and experts on how to improve the system for protecting the UK’s historic buildings and sites.
The consultation focused on issues such as streamlining the planning process, improving public access to information, and encouraging private investment in heritage sites. The document also highlighted the importance of balancing conservation efforts with economic growth and development.
Overall, the consultation was well-received, and led to several changes and updates in policies and practices related to the protection of historic heritage in the UK. The document is now considered an important milestone in the ongoing efforts to safeguard Britain’s rich cultural heritage for future generations.
2004
The 2004 DCMS ‘Review of Heritage protection: the way forward’ was an important report that examined the state of historic and cultural heritage protection in the UK. The report aimed to identify key issues and challenges facing the heritage sector and make recommendations for improving the system. Some of the key findings of the report included the need for more effective coordination between the different organizations responsible for heritage protection, greater public engagement and education, and increased funding for conservation projects. The report also recommended the creation of a new independent body to oversee heritage protection and planning. Overall, the report was an important step towards improving the protection of the UK’s rich cultural heritage and ensuring that it is preserved for future generations to enjoy.
2011
The National Heritage List for England was launched in 2011 to replace the previous designation systems for historic buildings and sites in England. This new list includes buildings, monuments, parks, and gardens that are of national importance and require legal protection. The National Heritage List for England is managed by Historic England, a public body responsible for protecting and promoting England’s historic environment.
In conjunction with this launch, a new internal Unified Designation System was introduced. This system brought together the different types of designations (such as listed buildings, scheduled monuments, and registered parks and gardens) into a single, simplified process. This new system aimed to make it easier for the public and professionals to understand the significance and status of heritage sites.
The launch of The National Heritage List for England and the introduction of The internal Unified Designation System represent a significant development in heritage protection in England. The new system ensures that important heritage sites are adequately recognized and protected for future generations.
2012
English Heritage, a government-funded body tasked with protecting and promoting England’s historic environment, announced in 2012 a strategic shift in its approach to designation casework. The move was aimed at enabling more focus on strategic priorities outlined in the National Heritage Protection Plan (NHPP). Going forward, English Heritage would only prioritize applications for listing or scheduling of buildings or monuments if the asset is under threat, fits into a current strategic project, or is of evident significance. The decision was expected to streamline decision-making processes, reduce workload, and allow English Heritage to concentrate its resources on key priorities such as enhancing public access to heritage sites, promoting understanding of diverse cultural heritage, and safeguarding heritage at risk. It was hoped that the new approach would improve the effectiveness of heritage protection initiatives and better serve the needs of the wider public.
2013
The Enterprise and Regulatory Reform Act (ERRA) was passed in 2013 and enabled changes to the 1990 Act. It introduced provisions to make it easier to modify or remove entries from the list of buildings of special architectural or historic interest, which in turn allowed certain exclusions to the extent of listing, where appropriate, at the point of designation. The ERRA also introduced provisions for greater protection of listed buildings against unauthorised alterations, and extended the powers to enforce listed building consent. Additionally, it established the Enterprise and Regulatory Reform Council to review and advise on regulatory changes with the aim of promoting economic growth and reducing regulatory burdens. The ERRA was seen as a key piece of legislation in making the planning system more efficient and effective, whilst still providing important protections for significant buildings and structures.
2015
On 1 April 2015, the UK government made the decision to separate English Heritage into two separate organisations – Historic England and the English Heritage Trust. The move was designed to create a more streamlined and effective approach to the management and preservation of England’s historical sites and monuments.
Historic England was created to oversee the care and protection of England’s built heritage, while the English Heritage Trust was tasked with managing and maintaining 420 historic sites and monuments, including Stonehenge, Dover Castle and Hadrian’s Wall. The Trust is also responsible for generating revenue through visitor entrance fees and donations.
The separation of English Heritage into two distinct organisations was seen as a positive step towards ensuring the longevity of England’s rich historic legacy. Each organisation operates independently but shares a strong commitment to promoting and preserving England’s historical sites and architecture for generations to come.
2015
Historic England, on 12 October 2015, introduced its Enhanced Advisory Services, which offered four new services as enhancements to the existing free planning and listing services. The new services comprise Advisory Plus, Listing Advice Plus, Heritage Partnership Agreements Plus, and Capacity Building Plus.
Advisory Plus provides tailored and ongoing support to local planning authorities that have a high volume of heritage casework.
Listing Advice Plus provides pre-application advice to those involved in a heritage-sensitive project such as landowners, architects, and developers.
Heritage Partnership Agreements Plus gives property owners a better understanding of the regulations guiding heritage assets on their property while the Capacity Building Plus aids local planning authorities in building the skills needed for effective heritage management.
The Enhanced Advisory Services ensures that heritage assets around the country are safeguarded while boosting the process for proposing and making changes to heritage assets.
2016
On June 7th, 2016, the Enriching the List initiative was launched in the UK, aimed at expanding the National Heritage List’s knowledgebase by allowing both amateurs and professionals to add heritage information and photographs to a separate layer of the list. The initiative is intended to add more detailed information, particularly for older, briefer List entries, encouraging people to learn more about the country’s heritage and history. This move has been welcomed as it allows greater participation and contribution from individuals, whilst ensuring that the integrity of the List is preserved. Heritage is an important aspect of our culture, and Enriching the List is one of the ways in which we can honour and celebrate this. The initiative has effectively expanded the potential audience for the National Heritage List, turning it into a living document that can be continually updated and expanded, allowing everyone the opportunity to learn more about the UK’s fascinating history.
2023
The launch event for the project was marked by speeches from prominent figures, including the Minister for Culture, who praised the Missing Pieces Project for its innovative approach to preserving England’s rich history. The public has been invited to nominate sites they believe should be selected for the project, with the final list determined by experts appointed by Historic England. The project has been funded by a mix of public and private funding, and it is expected to have a significant impact on both local communities and the wider region.
